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Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and Complex Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in People with Long COVID, ME/CFS, and Controls

Research output: Contribution to Journal/Magazine › Journal article › peer-review

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Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and Complex Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in People with Long COVID, ME/CFS, and Controls. / Sanal-Hayes, Nilihan E.M.; Hayes, Lawrence D.; Mclaughlin, Marie et al.
In: The American Journal of Medicine, Vol. 138, No. 4, 01.04.2025, p. 742-749.

Research output: Contribution to Journal/Magazine › Journal article › peer-review

Harvard

Sanal-Hayes, NEM, Hayes, LD, Mclaughlin, M, Berry, ECJ & Sculthorpe, NF 2025, 'Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and Complex Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in People with Long COVID, ME/CFS, and Controls', The American Journal of Medicine, vol. 138, no. 4, pp. 742-749. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjmed.2023.12.006

APA

Sanal-Hayes, N. E. M., Hayes, L. D., Mclaughlin, M., Berry, E. C. J., & Sculthorpe, N. F. (2025). Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and Complex Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in People with Long COVID, ME/CFS, and Controls. The American Journal of Medicine, 138(4), 742-749. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjmed.2023.12.006

Vancouver

Sanal-Hayes NEM, Hayes LD, Mclaughlin M, Berry ECJ, Sculthorpe NF. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and Complex Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in People with Long COVID, ME/CFS, and Controls. The American Journal of Medicine. 2025 Apr 1;138(4):742-749. Epub 2023 Dec 15. doi: 10.1016/j.amjmed.2023.12.006

Author

Sanal-Hayes, Nilihan E.M. ; Hayes, Lawrence D. ; Mclaughlin, Marie et al. / Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and Complex Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in People with Long COVID, ME/CFS, and Controls. In: The American Journal of Medicine. 2025 ; Vol. 138, No. 4. pp. 742-749.

Bibtex

@article{df576e7d3f96402d8b2865ee40067d3e,
title = "Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and Complex Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in People with Long COVID, ME/CFS, and Controls",
abstract = "Background: Prevalences of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and complex post-traumatic stress disorder (CPTSD) have not previously been compared between individuals with long coronavirus disease (COVID) and individuals with myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS), and healthy age-matched controls. For these reasons, this study aimed to determine the prevalence of PTSD and CPTSD in individuals with long COVID (n = 21) and ME/CFS (n = 20) and age-matched controls (n = 20). Methods: A case-case-control approach was employed; participants completed the International Trauma Questionnaire, a self-report measure of the International Classification of Diseases of PTSD and CPTSD consisting of 18 items. Scores were calculated for each PTSD and Disturbances in Self-Organization (DSO) symptom cluster and summed to produce PTSD and DSO scores. PTSD was diagnosed if the criteria for PTSD were met but not DSO, and CPTSD was diagnosed if the criteria for PTSD and DSO were met. Moreover, each cluster of PTSD and DSO were compared among individuals with long COVID, ME/CFS, and healthy controls. Results: Individuals with long COVID (PTSD = 5%, CPTSD = 33%) had more prevalence of PTSD and CPTSD than individuals with ME/CFS (PTSD = 0%, CPTSD = 20%) and healthy controls (PTSD = 0%, CPTSD = 0%). PTSD and CPTSD prevalence was greater in individuals with long COVID and ME/CFS than controls. Individuals with long COVID had greater values controls for all PTSD values. Moreover, individuals with long COVID had greater values than controls for all DSO values. Individuals with ME/CFS had greater values than controls for all DSO values. Both long COVID and ME/CFS groups differed in overall symptom scores compared with controls. Conclusion: Findings of this study demonstrated that individuals with long COVID generally had more cases of PTSD and CPTSD than individuals with ME/CFS and healthy controls.",
keywords = "Chronic fatigue syndrome, Complex post-traumatic stress disorder, Long COVID, Myalgic encephalomyelitis, Post-traumatic stress disorder, Trauma",
author = "Sanal-Hayes, {Nilihan E.M.} and Hayes, {Lawrence D.} and Marie Mclaughlin and Berry, {Ethan C.J.} and Sculthorpe, {Nicholas F.}",
year = "2025",
month = apr,
day = "1",
doi = "10.1016/j.amjmed.2023.12.006",
language = "English",
volume = "138",
pages = "742--749",
journal = "The American Journal of Medicine",
issn = "0002-9343",
publisher = "Elsevier Inc.",
number = "4",

}

RIS

TY - JOUR

T1 - Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and Complex Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in People with Long COVID, ME/CFS, and Controls

AU - Sanal-Hayes, Nilihan E.M.

AU - Hayes, Lawrence D.

AU - Mclaughlin, Marie

AU - Berry, Ethan C.J.

AU - Sculthorpe, Nicholas F.

PY - 2025/4/1

Y1 - 2025/4/1

N2 - Background: Prevalences of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and complex post-traumatic stress disorder (CPTSD) have not previously been compared between individuals with long coronavirus disease (COVID) and individuals with myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS), and healthy age-matched controls. For these reasons, this study aimed to determine the prevalence of PTSD and CPTSD in individuals with long COVID (n = 21) and ME/CFS (n = 20) and age-matched controls (n = 20). Methods: A case-case-control approach was employed; participants completed the International Trauma Questionnaire, a self-report measure of the International Classification of Diseases of PTSD and CPTSD consisting of 18 items. Scores were calculated for each PTSD and Disturbances in Self-Organization (DSO) symptom cluster and summed to produce PTSD and DSO scores. PTSD was diagnosed if the criteria for PTSD were met but not DSO, and CPTSD was diagnosed if the criteria for PTSD and DSO were met. Moreover, each cluster of PTSD and DSO were compared among individuals with long COVID, ME/CFS, and healthy controls. Results: Individuals with long COVID (PTSD = 5%, CPTSD = 33%) had more prevalence of PTSD and CPTSD than individuals with ME/CFS (PTSD = 0%, CPTSD = 20%) and healthy controls (PTSD = 0%, CPTSD = 0%). PTSD and CPTSD prevalence was greater in individuals with long COVID and ME/CFS than controls. Individuals with long COVID had greater values controls for all PTSD values. Moreover, individuals with long COVID had greater values than controls for all DSO values. Individuals with ME/CFS had greater values than controls for all DSO values. Both long COVID and ME/CFS groups differed in overall symptom scores compared with controls. Conclusion: Findings of this study demonstrated that individuals with long COVID generally had more cases of PTSD and CPTSD than individuals with ME/CFS and healthy controls.

AB - Background: Prevalences of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and complex post-traumatic stress disorder (CPTSD) have not previously been compared between individuals with long coronavirus disease (COVID) and individuals with myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS), and healthy age-matched controls. For these reasons, this study aimed to determine the prevalence of PTSD and CPTSD in individuals with long COVID (n = 21) and ME/CFS (n = 20) and age-matched controls (n = 20). Methods: A case-case-control approach was employed; participants completed the International Trauma Questionnaire, a self-report measure of the International Classification of Diseases of PTSD and CPTSD consisting of 18 items. Scores were calculated for each PTSD and Disturbances in Self-Organization (DSO) symptom cluster and summed to produce PTSD and DSO scores. PTSD was diagnosed if the criteria for PTSD were met but not DSO, and CPTSD was diagnosed if the criteria for PTSD and DSO were met. Moreover, each cluster of PTSD and DSO were compared among individuals with long COVID, ME/CFS, and healthy controls. Results: Individuals with long COVID (PTSD = 5%, CPTSD = 33%) had more prevalence of PTSD and CPTSD than individuals with ME/CFS (PTSD = 0%, CPTSD = 20%) and healthy controls (PTSD = 0%, CPTSD = 0%). PTSD and CPTSD prevalence was greater in individuals with long COVID and ME/CFS than controls. Individuals with long COVID had greater values controls for all PTSD values. Moreover, individuals with long COVID had greater values than controls for all DSO values. Individuals with ME/CFS had greater values than controls for all DSO values. Both long COVID and ME/CFS groups differed in overall symptom scores compared with controls. Conclusion: Findings of this study demonstrated that individuals with long COVID generally had more cases of PTSD and CPTSD than individuals with ME/CFS and healthy controls.

KW - Chronic fatigue syndrome

KW - Complex post-traumatic stress disorder

KW - Long COVID

KW - Myalgic encephalomyelitis

KW - Post-traumatic stress disorder

KW - Trauma

U2 - 10.1016/j.amjmed.2023.12.006

DO - 10.1016/j.amjmed.2023.12.006

M3 - Journal article

VL - 138

SP - 742

EP - 749

JO - The American Journal of Medicine

JF - The American Journal of Medicine

SN - 0002-9343

IS - 4

ER -